Animal testing why and why not Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Animal testing why and why not - Essay Example In the movie Rise of the Planet of the Apes, an experimental drug for Alzheimer’s and other brain diseases gives rise to a highly intelligent primate named Caesar who eventually leads his kind in a revolt against humans.In the movie Legally Blonde 2, one of the subplots is how the lead character’s dog, Bruiser, looks for his mom and discover she is a test animal at a large cosmetic company. Will Smith’s movie I Am Legend featured rats that were being used for animal testing. Movies are supposedly adapted from real life and, to sell, their stories should be relevant to audiences. If so, then the use of animals for research is indeed a popular and big enough issue of today to be made part of several movies. Animals have been a part of man’s life since time immemorial. This has resulted in an indescribable affinity between man and animals. Dogs, cats, hamsters and other small creatures have found their way to people’s homes as pets. Other animals live on farms and provide protection and livelihood for their owners. Some also serve as companions to human beings, especially those who have disabilities or a just lonely. Still other animals exist to maintain a balance in nature. A good example may be found in the movie Bee Movie. When the bees decided to stop working – making honey and transferring pollen from one flower to another – the flowers, trees and plants died. Of course, when the plants die, humans lose a source of oxygen. Fish is another example of animals that help keep the balance. Fish clean the Earth’s waters and also to provide sustenance to other living beings such as animals and humans. Obviously, there are reasons why animals are put on Earth to co-exist with man. If man benefits from the presence of animals, the same can be said for animals. In man, domesticated animals find shelter and food. Among the needs supplied by man, the most important of all is probably protection. Although animals hav e their own defensive characteristics, they are usually considered defenseless and depend on their owner for protection. This is why the issue of animal testing has become such a big controversy in modern times. Unlike in the past when there was not a very loud clamor for to recognize animal rights, nowadays, animal lovers have spoken for their pets and animals in general and have put into motion several activities in order for society to recognize that animal’s, too, have privileges. The use of animals for medical research has been in society for over 200 years. In the 1800’s, due to the widespread infestation of rats in Europe, these were caught, sold for money and eventually used to understand the effect of fasting on humans. (Rat) Aside from the fact that they reproduce fast and they are small, rats and mice are mammals that have genetic, biological and behavioral characteristics similar to humans (Melina) so scientists often use them in trying to understand people . Animal testing is not only limited to vertebrates. French scientist Louis Pasteur employed silk worms in proving the gem theory of disease (Germ) and fruit flies have provided understanding of how animals develop genetically. (Murnaghan, 1) Obviously, there were no qualms in employing animals to develop scientific research. It has to be noted that supporters of animal research do not condone any form of experimentation but only those that are helpful in finding ways to help humans. As reiterated by animal research followers, if the experiment is not for the common good, animal testing is not allowed. Like Sir John Vane has said â€Å"if one reviews the history of medical science, it is clear that every major medical advance has depended on animal experiments.† There are those, on the other hand, that do not share Sir Vane’s opinion. Objections to the use of animals in experimentation can be traced back to the 1700’s. Edmund O’Meara said that the torture inflicted by vivisection or conducting experiments on animals â€Å"places the body in an unnatural state.†

Non-European View of world history Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Non-European View of world history - Assignment Example Driven by this self-acclaimed superiority, the emperors of the Imperial China in the 10th century started a tribute system that claimed that foreign visitors as well as merchants of other nations must pay tribute to the emperor since their emperor is the heaven’s representative and chosen by the heaven. A common Chinese view was that their country is at the center of the earth. Therefore they should be in the leading position and they were above the merchant class who were believed, in Confucian ideals, to be the most despised ones. Therefore the merchants of the west were allowed to use Ports of Macau and Canton under strict Chinese supervision and regulation. The west could only receive smidgeons of respect from the Chinese Emperors by showing their knowledge in mathematics and astronomy in front of the Chinese Imperial authority. But the other branches of western knowledge, for the Chinese, were as useless and negligible as those of the barbarians. The western countries wer e, in the eye of a common Chinese, the habitats of some warring barbarians who, at any cost, were be neglected because of their barbarian behaviors. These barbarians were so negligible that they did not deserve to be acknowledged as invaders or something that the Chinese should be afraid of. Yet the mass cultural construct was much friendly to the West. But after the First Opium War of 1839, the Chinese view of the West underwent the most significant transition. The Chinese self-acclaimed superiority began to dwindle in the face of the West’s technology based military superiority. The defeated experiences in the First Opium War was a severe blow that brought the heavenly Chinese superiority down, though not to earth. Due to the Industrial revolution the economic growth and stability as well as military superiority was high in the mid-19th century. But in comparison with the west, the Chinese economy was eroding within itself. In the face of western technology-based economy, C hinese manual labor-depended production system and economy were less competent. So was the Chinese military power. Because of the industrial growth in the West China became more important for the western traders and merchants from whom the country was potential both a market and a raw-material feeder of the western industry. Consequently conflict of interest grew between the self-acclaimed superior China and the challenging west and Opium war took place as a test for the Chinese claim. China was defeated by the overwhelming western warring capability and the ruling Qing was forced to sign the Treaty of Nanjing. The superior Chinese ego had yet diminished at the defeat. Rather the Qing Dynasty was trying diehard to reestablish its superiority. But though the Dynasty took initiative to adapt itself with the new trend of the age by the â€Å"Hundred Days’ Reform† and â€Å"Late Qing Reform† in the late 19th Century and early 20th century, it was too late to recover from the loss of Opium War, Taiping Rebellion, Panthay Rebellion, Dungan revolt, and a number of other adversaries. Cotterell says that the end of the Napoleonic War, the growth of industrial revolutions and the European Colonial presence in the neighboring states of China allured the West

Social Change Essay Example for Free

Social Change Essay Social Change is defined as any modification in the social organization of a society in any of its social institutions or patterns of social roles. Usually social change refers to a significant change in social behavior or a change in some larger social system, rather than to minor changes within a small group. Thus, social change refers to changes in the established patterns of social relationships for example in family, religious or economic life. One of the biggest social changes that has happened during my lifetime is the development and distribution of cell phones. Ten years ago cell phones were never even heard of and now they seem to be a necessity to life. The first cell phones were made back in the 1980s and were the size of bricks. They were also costly so not many people had them. The first experience I had with a cell phone was when I was in 5th grade and my mom bought our family’s first cell phone. It was a solid black flip phone that had a pullout antenna and a black and white screen. When my mom bought the phone my siblings and I thought it was the coolest thing in the world and we use to beg our mom to let us play games on her phone. A few years later, due to the ever growing popularity of portable phones, the rest of my family would be getting their first cell phones. I received my first cell phone when I was in 7th grade and most of my other friends were starting to get theirs. It was a solid red phone with a slide down keyboard and it was one of the more favorable cell phones at the time. When I bought the phone, I immedia tely noticed a big change for me and that was no longer having to remember people’s phone numbers. Instead of memorizing twenty to thirty numbers I could just program them into my phone and never have to worry about them again. By the time I entered high school, every kid had a cell phone and now it was a competition to see who had the best and most up to date cell phone. Since the invention of cell phones the technology and software of the phones have increased exponentially in such a short period of time. The biggest leaps in the phones technology happened when I was in high school. During my softmore year touchscreen phones came out and everybody had to have one.

Physical Abuse Of Women In The Home Criminology Essay

Physical Abuse Of Women In The Home Criminology Essay The role of women in the development of any country cannot be overemphasized. Women play significant roles in the upbringing of children and in the maintenance of family harmony. Violence perpetrated on women in the home and outside the home has adverse effects on individuals within the family and society in general both in emotional and physical wellbeing. Sexual abuse is a significant aspect of domestic violence. If unchecked, the goal of having a healthy and balanced society is deeply threatened. Variables and factors which occur in varying proportions act as catalysts in determining or influencing human behaviour and actions in general and human behaviour in the home in particular. In examining physical and sexual abuse of women in the home, concepts and definitions are explored. In addition to the review of relevant literature, which would cover both international and Nigerian studies, this article examines perspectives and theories that seek to explain this social problem and c rime as applicable. These perspectives have been grouped into the following historical (to identify the origins of domestic violence); psychological which includes psychiatric approaches (concentrating on the individual offender and victim); sociological or socio-cultural (emphasis on institutions, structures, socialization, subculture of violence; and economic explanations. Feminist perspectives are incorporated in these explanations. Through the use of interviews, current opinions of stakeholders on this subject (legal practitioners, interest groups and the police) with regard to the Nigeria experience are discussed. Finally, possible remedies and treatment of the abused, and batterer shall be discussed. THE CONCEPT OF DOMESTIC VIOLENCE The physical abuse of women in the home falls under the umbrella of domestic violence. However, in any relationship or family, the physical dwelling or home is a residential unit, abuse can occur in any location. On domestic violence, according to Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia (2012): Domestic violence, also known as domestic abuse, spousal abuse, battering, family violence, and intimate partner violence (IPV), is a pattern of behavior which involves the abuse by one partner against another in an intimate relationship such as marriage, cohabitation, dating or within the family. Domestic violence can take many forms, including physical aggression or assault (hitting, kicking, biting, shoving, restraining, slapping, throwing objects, battery), or threats thereof; sexual abuse; emotional abuse; controlling or domineering; intimidation; stalking; passive/covert abuse (e.g., neglect); and economic deprivation. The focus of this article is mainly the female victim in the home. Other victims of abuse within the home include children, males or husbands, the elderly and domestic helps. Violence against children and women get reported to authourities more often than those associated with males. Domestic violence against a male victim is difficult to determine, as the male victim is usually reluctant to get help or report incidents for a variety of reasons such a negative response and attitude from law enforcement agencies, including the notion that there appears to be a high degree of acceptance of aggression against men by women (Wikipedia, 2012). What is physical and sexual abuse? Domestic violence covers physical and sexual violations for which there are provisions in the statute books for offences associated with it. Other forms of domestic violence such as child abuse and the abuse of the elderly are not part of the subject for discussion in this article, though relevant examples from other victims of abuse in the home shall be highlighted. In this paper, attention is on the physical and sexual abuse of women or the wife. The Real Life Dictionary of Law (Hill and Hill, 1995) defined the following concepts and offences: Domestic violence The continuing crime and problem of the physical beating of a wife, girlfriend or children, usually by the womans male partner (although it can be female violence against a male); Assault the threat or attempt to strike another, whether successful or not, provided the target is aware of the danger; and Battery the actual intentional striking of someone, with intent to harm, or in a rude and insolent manner even if the injury is slightà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦It is often coupled with assault (which does not require actual touching). A form of domestic violence on women in the home is sexual abuse. Sexual violations or offences can be categorized into buggery, indecent assault, indecency between males, rape, unlawful intercourse with a girl under 13 and under 16 years, incest, procreation, abduction, bigamy, soliciting by a man, and gross indecency with a child (Hanmer and Saunders, 1984). In a Dictionary of Law, A husband can be convicted for raping his wife, and a boy under the age of 14 can be guilty of rape. The maximum penalty for rape or attempted rape is life imprisonment, but this is rarely imposedà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ (Martin, (ed.), 1994). In England and Wales, the Criminal Justice and Public Order Act 1994 (amended), defines rape as forced penile penetration of the victims vagina or anus by a male where the female is not consenting. This definition now includes sexual acts such as anal intercourse, oral sex, or penetration of the vagina by other objects (Painter and Farrington, 1997). Other forms of violence within the domestic domain honor killings, acid attacks and dowry violence. According to Wikipedia the free encyclopedia, (2012) an honor killing is the homicide of a member of a family or social group by other members, due to the belief of the perpetrators that the victim has brought dishonor upon the family or community. It is also noted that dishonour could include refusing to enter into an arranged marriage or the woman committing adultery. Also, another form is dowry violence and bride burning, which is known to occur in places such as South Asia, and bride burning is a form of the man or husbands discontent over the dowry provided by her family. It is said to be a problem in countries such as India. Another form of violence or abuse against women which has also been occurring in Nigeria involves the use of acids or corrosive chemicals. Acid bathe is the pouring of corrosive substance on someone. According to Eze-Anaba, (2007) this could cause permanent disfigurement of the victims, and unfortunately acids are readily available on the streets for purchase. She noted that acid baths first gained public attention in 1990 when a former beauty queen was attacked by her boyfriend because she refused to renew their relationship. Acid attack or vitriolage could occur out of jealousy or revenge, and the acid is usually thrown on the face, with long term effects such as blindness and permanent scarring of the face and body (Wikipedia, 2012). Certain countries with reports of such attacks include Pakistan, Cambodia, Afghanistan, Bangladesh and India. LITERATURE AND RESEARCH ON THE ABUSE OF WOMEN IN THE HOME A number of studies have been carried out on the abuse of women in the home. These studies include that of the effects of domestic violence or wife abuse on the family in general and the woman in particular. Some research has also been carried out on possible remedies and treatment for the victims and the offenders. Historically, prior to the mid-1800s, most legal systems accepted wife beating as a valid exercise of a husbands authority over his wife. Later, political agitation during the nineteenth century led changes in countries such as the United Kingdom and the United States. For instance, in 1850, Tennessee became the first state in the United States to explicitly outlaw wife beating. Womens movement of the1970s especially as it concerned feminism and womens rights gained a lot of attention. In England and Wales for the years 1885-1905, out of 497 murders committed by men, 124 were women murdered by their husbands, 115 were mistresses or lovers of their assailants and over 50% of all murdered victims were women with long relationships with the male murderer (MacDonald, 1911). The work of Wolfgang (1958) in Philadelphia revealed that during the 1950s the number of wives assaulted by their husbands constituted 41% of all women who were killed. In his study, only 10% of the murder cases were committed by wives. Wolfgang (1958) concluded that the home was the most frequent setting for severe violence. In another study, Dobash and Dobash (1979) revealed that 109 women interviewed reported 32,000 assaults during their marriages, but only 517 of these assaults (less than 2%) were reported to the police. They discovered that women rarely reported to friends, neighbours, doctors and social workers because of their expectation that the violent acts would soon discontinue, the anti cipated family shame, and desire to save the marriage especially because of the children. Other reasons include anticipated financial difficulty and psychological pressure in divorce proceedings. The national Survey of Wives in Great Britain carried out to determine the prevalence of violence by husbands and rape of wives in and outside marriage revealed that out of a quota sample of 1,007 wives, 228% of wives had been hit by their husbands, while 13% of them had sexual intercourse with their husbands against their will. Lower class wives and separated or divorced wives were likely to have been assaulted. In total, 22% of wives had been raped inside or outside marriage (Painter and Farrington, 1997). Further, based on 19,301,000 ever married women in Great Britain aged 18-54 in 1991 (Office of National Statistics, 1997), it was estimated that between 2,483,000 and 3,162,000 women have been hit by their husbands. Also, between 1,761,000 and 2,379,000 women have been threatened by their husbands, and between 2,936,000 and 3,657,000 have been hit or threatened by their husbands (Painter and Farrington, 1997). On rape, it was analysed that one in seven British wives had been rape d, and nearly all the raped wives (94.4%) were raped by their husbands when they lived together and on different occasions (painter and Farrington, 1997). A study in Papua New Guinea in 1982 revealed tht in the 19 villages sampled, 67% of rural wives had been hit by either their husbands and 66% of rural husbands accepted that they had hit their wives. Marital rape was said to be very common and is allowed by law (Bradley, 1994). In Brazil, reports gathered from the womens Delegacias (special police unit formed to address issues of domestic violence and other related cases) in a 1987 study of over 2,000 battery cases registered at the Sao Paulo delegacia from August to December 1985 revealed that over 70% of all reported crime against women occurred in the home (Thomas, 1994). In India before the abolition of the Sati rite practice in 1829 by the British, Narasimhan (1994) recounts, saying violence is not only attributed to physical battery or rape, and that culturally before 1829 in India, widows burned themselves to death on the late husbands pyre (pile of wood) to become a stati, exalted and deified. Surprisungly, in 1987 an 18 year old girl performed this rite. Furthermore, dowry deaths are common in situations where the woman commits suicide or endures whatever abuse in the home rather than have her parents disgraced by returning to their home or leaving the husband. Narasimhan (1994) noted that there still exists a pervasive belief governing the social perception of women as complete servants to their husbands. In African and Nigerian societies in particular, Eze-Anaba, (2007) observed that many of the victims do not speak out about violations of their rights because of the poor response from society. However, she noted that the situation has improved over the years through international and local policies and laws. She cites the examples of documents, the Convention on the Elimination of All forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) and the Beijing Platform for Action at the international level. Eze-Anaba, (2007) noted that Nigeria has incorporated the United Nations Protocol to Prevent, Suppress, and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children, and the United Nations Convention Against Transnational Organized Crime, and the Convention on the Rights of the Child into domestic law. The African Charter on Human and Peoples Rights has also been incorporated in Nigeria. However, she observed that Nigeria is a country where international human rights instruments have yet to be incorporated into domestic laws. According to Eze-Anaba (2007) examples of research in Nigeria include that of a survey carried out by Project Alert in 2001 women and girls in Nigeria were asked about abuses within the family unit. This survey revealed that in a particular state, Lagos, more than half of the participants confirmed their partners, boyfriends, or husband had beaten them. Reasons for the assault included drunkenness, financial problems and refusing to have sex with the perpetrator. A good number of the participants had reported the abuse to family members, the perpetrators family and to their religious leaders while some just endured the abuse. Interestingly there was no report of any respondent filing a complaint with the police or seeking redress in court (Eze-Anaba, 2007). Research conducted within the Federal Capital Territory (FCT) Abuja by Owonibi (2008) revealed that the mean age of respondents who have experienced domestic violence within the home was 32 years. It was also observed that incidents of domestic violence decreases with age for instance from 41 years and above. This study highlighted that within the home, children and women are often victimized compared to males. Awusi, Okeleke, and Anyanwu, (2009) in a study on the prevalence of domestic violence during pregnancy in the Oleh community in Nigeria observed that domestic violence against pregnant women could expose victims to higher risk of complications during pregnancy. Using a questionnaire-based, cross-sectional study, from 400 pregnant women attending the ante-natal clinic of the Central Hospital at Oleh., 92% of the women showed complete knowledge of domestic violence, and 36% had experienced domestic violence during pregnancy. Further, domestic violence experienced were verbal (58%), physical (31%) and sexual (11%) abuses. The husband was the main offender (92%), and 77% of the women would rather keep the experience of domestic violence during pregnancy secret. Awusi et al (2009) noted that domestic violence against women cuts across ages, ethnicity, religion and educational status. Also, common risk factors include low socio-economic and educational status, early marriage, alcohol and s ubstance abuse by the partner and unemployment. They assert that the impact of domestic violence on pregnant women is increasingly being recognized as an important public health issue. Idogo, (2011) studied the effects of domestic violence on pre-school children She noted that some empirical studies show that children growing up in violent families are vulnerable to low cognition, and are likely to engage in youth violence, adult violence tendencies, and other forms of criminality. She also observed that in Nigeria, pre school children are tutored and raised up under the culture of violence. For instance, physically abused, punished and beaten for any misbehaviour in the home and in the classroom. Starvation is also employed as a form sanction in some families. Also children are often given adult tasks, such as going to the farm and market, and even used as guardians of younger children. Further, family violence could be transferred to the children especially from their mothers who tend to express their frustrations on their children. Thus, pre school children regress developmentally, and exhibit various forms of behavioural disorders, such as insomnia, nightmare , anxiety and violence towards their mates. The male perpetrator This is difficult to come by as men do not usually file complaints officially. However, information about the male batterer usually comes from the staff and residents of shelters of battered women (Roberts, 1981). The childhood experience and other variables are not normally taken into consideration in describing the batterer (Smith, 1989). In his treatment of 42 men, Smith observed certain features of male batterers, some of which were that as children, 21% of them were physically abused, 7% were sexually abused, 45% saw their mothers abused, 93% had battered previous partners, 62% were under the influence of alcohol or other drugs, 50% were currently involved with the Criminal Justice System, and 45% have been violent with others outside the family. Batterers usually deny their violent behavior due to embarrassment, guilt and shame (Walker, 1978). Some are also known to have low self-esteem (Falk, 1977), and project their anger from previous experiences into marriage. Societal responses to spousal abuse The effects of wife abuse can be categorized into physical i.e. extensive injuries to death (Dobash and Dobash, 1974) and psychological like symptoms of stress, weight loss or gain (Smith, 1989). This could result to thoughts of suicide (Stanko, 1985). Gayford (1978) revealed that suicide attempts were common and often repeated by battered women in his sample. Children are also known to suffer physically (miscarriages, still birth and other injuries) and psychologically from domestic violence with boys being most affected behaviourally (Jaffe, et al. 1986 and Wolfe, et al. 1985). How society responds to domestic violence is significant for treatment and rehabilitation. On Social Responses and Treatment, in the laws, changes have occurred in statute books in most parts of the world deliberately addressing domestic violence. For example, in Britain, The Homeless Persons Act of 1977-78 makes battered women a priority group for housing. However, Smith (1989) noted that the problems with legal remedies are in its complexity and delays in civil matters (especially in the burden of proof) unlike the criminal laws governing domestic violence. Closely associated with the law is the police who usually exercise their discretion in handling violent offences in the home in particular (Black, 1971). It was observed that the police are more likely to wave arrests of husbands for various abusive offences and the judicial responses usually neglects the same pattern in treatment and sanctions which are usually mild like fines and probation (Dobash and Dobash, 1979). The main argument being that prosecution and arrests may destroy the marriage coupled with the fact t hat most women do not usually press charges and testify in court. For Dobash and Dobash (1979) the system actually discourages and frustrates women with deliberately prolonged court proceedings and on the contrary, most women in their study actually followed up their case up to the final adjudication. According to Smith (1989), vigorous arrest policy would demonstrate social disapproval and might act as a deterrent to further violence. Welfare associations formed by the government and interested groups also play important roles in counseling, provision of refuge accommodation, and assisting in pursuing complaints to a logical conclusion. Maye and Timms (1970) observed that the orientation of staff or members of a welfare association can determine which cases they think are serious since they usually lack sufficient resources for their activities. The Womens Aid Federation of England declares its objectives as follows to eradicate and inform the public, the media, the police, the courts, the social services and other authourities with respect to the battery of women, mindful of the fact that this is a result of the general position of women in society (Smith, 1989). Other important groups relevant to remedies are the medical practitioners who usually treat injuries of abused women. They could intervene by counseling and other necessary actions within the law. For Dobash and Dobash, a conspiracy of silence often exis ts between doctor and patient. Family and friends are useful especially in giving emotional support to the victim. Citing examples from the Laws of Northern Nigeria, Criminal Code Act (1990), Cap 77 Eze-Anaba, (2007) noted that some provisions of the law, rather than protecting women from domestic violence, could encourage offenders by giving them opportunities to escape sanctions. She further stated that for instance, in Sec. 55 (1)d of the Penal Code a man is empowered to correct children, pupil, servant or wife. For Eze-Anaba (2007: 37), since there is no law against domestic violence in Nigeria, at best a victim who seeks protection under the law will rely on the provisions of the Criminal Code on common assault. The Criminal Code considers assault on a woman as a misdemeanor while assault on a man is a felony. Laws concerning domestic violence differ between countries. According to Wikipedia, (2012) most countries in the western world regard it as illegal, but this is not the case in some developing countries. The country Russia is cited where there is no law specifying domestic violence as a crime, even though physical violence is illegal. Another example is from the United Arab Emiratess where in 2010 a Supreme Court ruled that a man has the right to physically discipline his wife and children as long as he doesnt leave physical marks. The Encyclopedia also notes that social acceptability of domestic violence also varies between country. Eze-Anaba, (2007) observed that impediments to legal redress by women in Nigeria include lack of access to justice as they are not aware of their rights and do not have access to institutions that can remedy violations of such rights. Illiteracy is said to be one of the reasons for this situation. The formal legal system in Nigeria is said to be exorbitant for most Nigerians and especially poor women. Also, poor law enforcement riddled with corruption and stereotypes in favour of males are problems to contend with. Further, the tripartite legal system has its issues as elucidated by Eze-Anaba (2007:55) as follows: The Nigerian legal system is made up of three different systems of law: the statutory law, religious law, and customary law. Statutory laws include the Constitution, laws made by the government, and government policies. There are different types of religious groups in Nigeria with different laws for their members. The common ones are Christianity, Muslim/Islamic, and traditional religious laws. Customary laws include laws of diverse people of Nigeria, which govern personal matters like marriage, children, and inheritance. These three types of law are enforced by three types of courts namely the formal courts: customary courts in Southern Nigeria and Shari a courts in Norther n Nigeria. In principle, statutory law takes precedence over all other laws. In practice however, things are different. In the Northern part of the country, the predominant religion is Islam. Statutory laws are not necessarily more protective of women. The judicial system is male dominated and reflects the prejudices and stereotypes of the wider societyà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ THEORIES/THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK Why are women abused in the home? The various explanations have been categorized into the historical, psychological, socio-cultural, feminist and multi-dimensional or integrative perspectives. From a historical perspective, studies reveal that wife abuse emanated from the enabling environment in the history of most cultures and societies which encouraged and condoned it. For Dobash and Dobash (1979), the physical abuse of women more especially wives is an expression of patriarchical (male headship of an organization or institution) domination. Since the legal, political, economic and ideological structures supported this, men used these avenues to possess, control and oppress their wives. For example, with regard to religion, the Christian account of mans creation, and the creation of the woman to meet his needs created a moral ideology that justified the subjugation of women especially in the marriage institution which provides a conducive atmosphere for the assault and physical abuse of women (Dobash and Dobash, 1979). In most traditional communities especially in Arica, women are viewed as part of the husbands asset or property. Thus, her treatment depends on his discre tion. Sexual violence relates to contempt of female qualities and rape is part of the culture of male dominance (Sanday, 1979). Akin to the emphasis on patriarchy is the feminist perspective. With regard to violence against women, this perspective draws attention to patriarchal societies that encourage patriarchal family structures that ascribes power in the home and in other areas of human endeavour to men (Power, 1988: 133). This creates the environment and opportunity for abuse and exploitation. The psychological perspective focuses its explanation on anomalies in the personalities of the offender and victim in this discussion these are the male batterer and the abused woman. In other words, under the psychological perspective, psychoanalytical theories focus on the individuals psychological makeup that encourages and accepts abusive behavior. Hyde-Nolan and Juliao (2012) draw attention to psychodynamic theories, one of which is the Object Relations Theory associated with character molding. According to Fairbairn (1952), this theory suggests that humans are motivated early in their childhood by the need of significant relationships with people in and out of the family unit. Thus, early relationships play a role in the individuals psychic development and consequently forms an enduring psychological template for future interactions and relationships (Hyde-Nolan and Juliao, 2012). They also state that first experiences usually comes from ones primary caregiver. For Zosky (1999) initial life experiences, if positive and adequate contributes significantly to the emotional health of the individual later in life. Thus individuals that experience poor nurturing during infancy and childhood may grapple with issues such as self-esteem, poor anxiety management and the inability to regulate emotions or emotional responses in the course of their lives. According to Zosky, (1999) it has been found that somen that engaged in intimate partner violence (IPV), had inadequate nurturing in their early years of development. Dutton et al (1996) also found that parental rejection and violence in the family was highly correlated to intimate partner violence in adulthood. From another perspective, it has been argued that people adapt to abusive situations having acquired the skills from childhood, and this may encourage victims to remain in an abusive relationship or household in their adulthood (Blizard and Bluhn, 1994). In sum in studies, Faulk (1974) and Gayford (1975) presented the male batterer as mentally ill, neurotic or disturbed. For Smith (1989), the focus on the pathological aspect of the abuser neglects the social, cultural and situational factors. Walkate, (1989) noted that this explanation does not bring into focus the recurring patterns of victimization since it focuses mainly on the individual in particular situations. The sociological or socio-cultural explanation consists of other sub-perspectives such as the subculture of violence, social learning, socio-cultural, control theory, conflict and economic inequality theories. According to Goode, (1971) if force does not exist, the structure of the family will be destroyed and the family like other social institutions requires or depends on force or its threat for its control. Husbands are most likely to use such force. Strauss (1973 and 1976) laid emphasis on deviant authourity cultures as the source of violence in homes as likely reaction when the wife is dominant in decision making. Smith (1989) using socio-cultural analysis explains violence in the home as a response to frustration, stress and blocked goals like in relative poverty, unemployment and poor working conditions. Hence, control theorists argue that the need to obtain power and control within the family or within relationships is a source of conflict. Hence, the threat of force is a common tool used against weaker members of the family such as women, children and the elderly. Thus in an attempt to secure and maintain control, the abuser may adopt methods such as intimidation, coercion, isolation, denial of personal responsibility or blame and economic abuse. Resorting to violence as a result of loss of control could occur as result of the influence of substances for example alcohol causes people to lose control, in addition to the inability to control anger and frustration. In turn, the abused or victim in an attempt to survive modify their behavior to suit their abuser (Bostock, et al 2002). This can also be referred to as learned helplessness the outcome of repeated abuse, which eventually prevents the victim from resisting the violence or leaving the relationship. On the subculture of violence, Wolfgang and Feracuti (1967) view violence as the outcome of a socialization process or subcultural patterns existing in certain societal groups. For Levi (1994), this theory does not adequately explain the origin of the subculture in the first place. However, Box (1994) argued that the existence of a culture of masculinity and within that, a subculture of violence creates these abuses of women as within our culture to be a real man is to be strong, powerful, independent, being able to always overcome resistance, and other attributes often measured by the number of sexual conquests. In socio-learning theory, social theories give attention to the learning process of abusive and violent behavior and how they are transferred to members of the family or group as the case may be. Closely associated with social learning theories are the cognitive behavior explanations that focus on the learning and transfer of abusive, violent and aggressive behavior between individuals. According to Capell and Heiner, (1990) research has found that young adults who witnessed and experienced domestic violence as children are more likely to be in an intimate relationship as either an abuser or victim. It is believed that criminal behavior is learned and the use of violence is a learnrd response from the company of others, gangs, groups or police enforcement techniques (Sutherland and Cressey, 1966). For Bandura (1973), aggression is learned through imitation (modeling) and sustained through reinforcements during the individuals life. Other socio-learning theorists are Schultz (1960), Snell, Rosenwald and Robey (1964). These proponents believe that he source of violence is a s a result of unfulfilled childhood experiences and deviant marital relationships (Dobash and Dobash, 1979). Studies that have focused on children suggest that experiences throughout life influence an individuals propensity to engage in family violence (either as a victim or as a perpetrator) (Wikipedia, 2012). Thus, researchers have identified childhood socialization, previous experiences in couple relationships during adolescence, and levels of strain in a persons current life are likely explanations for domestic violence. Thus domestic violence is a learned behavior through observation, experience and reinforcement. It can be learned in cultures, within families and in communities, such as schools, peer groups and workplaces. Hyde-Nolan and Juliao (2012) drew attention to the Violence as Trauma Theory, which argues how the victim of abuse process their traumatic experience in life can have an impact in their behavior and how the cope

Organizational Behavior Terminology and Concepts Essay -- Organization

Organizational Behavior Terminology and Concepts Businesses today often promote change to create a better more productive work environment. These changes occasionally produce unwanted results which were not expected or planned for. By monitoring organizational behavior unwanted or negative results can be minimized so change can be effective within an organization. Organizational behavior, organizational culture, diversity, communication, business ethics, and change management are all factors within an organization. Managers should clearly define these terms to create a more efficient and effective work environment. â€Å"Your Company† ensures growth and success by establishing strict guidelines and procedures which include these factors of organizational behavior. Organizational behavior is the study of individuals and groups in organizations (Schermerhorn, Hunt, & Osborn, 2008, p. 5). By monitoring organizational behavior on a constant basis the managers in an organization can implement changes as needed to improve the performance of the organization and the individual employees. At â€Å"Your Company†, understanding the organizational behavior helps managers implement new technologies and ideas. This is done by observing the changes which must be made in order to achieve a more productive and successful organization. One of the most observable aspects of the OB is the attitude of the employees at â€Å"Your Company†. From the moment a person walks in the door they can feel the sense of pride and motivation that each employee has to do the best they can. This enables the employees to work efficiently as a team and be as productive as possible. Organizational culture is a shared set of beliefs and values within an organization ... ...ans are able to work efficiently and effectively by paying attention to detail and following the guidelines and procedures standardized by management. Good communication facilitates a pleasant environment to work in as well as employee appreciation incentives such as the technician bonus program and quarterly picnics to thank the employees for their hard work. By maintaining strict interviewing and hiring practices managers are able to enlist the skills of talented individuals who work well as a team or individually. This ensures employee independence as well as facilitates team building and a sense of pride in the work they perform. References Schermerhorn, J.R., Hunt, J.G., & Osborn, R.N. (2008). Organizational Behavior (10th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. â€Å"Your Company† (2008). Retrieved November 8, 2008, from: http://www.†Your Company†inc.com Organizational Behavior Terminology and Concepts Essay -- Organization Organizational Behavior Terminology and Concepts Businesses today often promote change to create a better more productive work environment. These changes occasionally produce unwanted results which were not expected or planned for. By monitoring organizational behavior unwanted or negative results can be minimized so change can be effective within an organization. Organizational behavior, organizational culture, diversity, communication, business ethics, and change management are all factors within an organization. Managers should clearly define these terms to create a more efficient and effective work environment. â€Å"Your Company† ensures growth and success by establishing strict guidelines and procedures which include these factors of organizational behavior. Organizational behavior is the study of individuals and groups in organizations (Schermerhorn, Hunt, & Osborn, 2008, p. 5). By monitoring organizational behavior on a constant basis the managers in an organization can implement changes as needed to improve the performance of the organization and the individual employees. At â€Å"Your Company†, understanding the organizational behavior helps managers implement new technologies and ideas. This is done by observing the changes which must be made in order to achieve a more productive and successful organization. One of the most observable aspects of the OB is the attitude of the employees at â€Å"Your Company†. From the moment a person walks in the door they can feel the sense of pride and motivation that each employee has to do the best they can. This enables the employees to work efficiently as a team and be as productive as possible. Organizational culture is a shared set of beliefs and values within an organization ... ...ans are able to work efficiently and effectively by paying attention to detail and following the guidelines and procedures standardized by management. Good communication facilitates a pleasant environment to work in as well as employee appreciation incentives such as the technician bonus program and quarterly picnics to thank the employees for their hard work. By maintaining strict interviewing and hiring practices managers are able to enlist the skills of talented individuals who work well as a team or individually. This ensures employee independence as well as facilitates team building and a sense of pride in the work they perform. References Schermerhorn, J.R., Hunt, J.G., & Osborn, R.N. (2008). Organizational Behavior (10th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. â€Å"Your Company† (2008). Retrieved November 8, 2008, from: http://www.†Your Company†inc.com

Commercial Papermaking :: essays papers

Commercial Papermaking Paper in 20th-century civilization, is one of our most important industrial products. Books, magazines, and newspapers are printed on paper. Data from computers are usually printed on paper. Education, government and industry could not operate without printing and writing on paper. Paperboard (used in packaging), and absorbent papers (tissue and towelling) are other widely used paper products. Paper is made from cellulose fibbers, which are found in all plant cell walls. When a mixture of water and fibbers is filtered through a fine screen, the fibbers tangle together to form a sheet of paper. As the wet sheet is dried chemical bonds form between the molecules in cellulose fibbers next to one and other. This gives the sheet of paper its strength. The grade and type of any paper depends on the fibbers and processes used in making it. The basic process of making paper has not changed in more than 2000 years. It involves two stages: the breaking up of raw materials in water to make a suspension of individual fibbers and the formation of felted sheets by spreading this suspension on a porous surface, to drain excess water. The essential steps of papermaking by machine are identical with those of hand papermaking just much more complex. The first step in machine papermaking is the preparation of the raw material. For centuries, the main raw materials used in papermaking were cotton and linen fibbers obtained from rags. Today more than 95 percent of paper is made from wood cellulose. Wood is used mainly for the cheapest grades of paper, such as newsprint. Cotton and linen fibbers are still used for high quality writing and artist’s papers. Many kinds of wood can be used such as aspen, beach, birch fir, gum, hemlock, oak, pine, and spruce. The preparation of making wood into a pulp for papermaking is accomplished in two different ways. In the groundwood process, blocks of wood are held against a fast revolving grindstone that shreds off short wood fibbers from the block. The fibbers produced by this process are short and are used only in the production of cheap newsprint and used to be added with other types of wood fibber in the making of high-quality paper. Another technique uses a chemical-solvent processes where wood chips are treated with solvents that remove â€Å"resinous material and lignin† from the wood, leaving pure fibbers of cellulose.

Factors Which Influence Learning Relationships And Communication Education Essay

In this essay I will explicate and discourse how motive is one of the most of import factors that influence acquisition, relationships and communicating in the schoolroom. The duty for making a positive acquisition ambiance lies about wholly with the instructor and motivated pupils make this procedure a batch easier. Motivation besides plays a critical function in developing relationships in the schoolroom, both instructor and pupil motive. I will besides discourse in greater item later of the importance of affecting the parent or carer in constructing these relationships and how this enhances these relationships. The ability of the instructor to pass on both verbally and nonverbally with their pupils is enormously of import and is the basis on which effectual acquisition is built. Motivation once more is a enormously important factor in this communicating procedure, as a motivated instructor communicates good with their pupils and a motivated instructor leads to the development of m otivated pupils. A positive acquisition environment is one of the most basic demands in order for meaningful acquisition to happen in a schoolroom ( Kyriacou, 2009 ) . A positive acquisition atmosphere is one where the pupils are comfy, hold assurance in their instructor, and experience a sense of trust and regard for one another. In order to heighten learning lessons must be organised and the instructor must be after for the usage learning methods that encourage pupils to go actively involved in larning. This can be done by besides changing the course of study and happening out what our pupils involvements are, giving them motive to larn. Teachers need to dispute themselves to utilize different learning methods to excite pleasance in acquisition and accordingly tackle ennui. The debut of new educational attacks such as undertakings and fact-finding work will let clip for students to describe back on what they learnt and back up this procedure. A survey by Kaplan et Al. ( 2002 ) found that the degree of riotous behavior by students tended to be higher in those schoolrooms where the students felt that the presentation of ability and making better than others was the dominant value compared with schoolrooms where the students felt that the dominant values were larning, understanding and bettering one ‘s ain public presentation. Kyriacou ( 2007 ) suggests the instructor needs to be relaxed, warm, lovingness, enthusiastic, patient, and supportive and possess a sense of wit. To make this ambiance, the instructor must prosecute the pupils every bit shortly as the category commences. The schoolroom clime established by the instructor can hold a major impact on students ‘ motive degrees and attitudes towards larning. Remind pupils at the start of every lesson that the type of attitude they bring into the schoolroom will hold a immense influence on the acquisition that takes topographic point during that category ( Cullinford, 2003 ) . Motivation plays a immense function in making this positive acquisition atmosphere. Harmonizing to Erickson ( 1978 ) the bulk of pupils respond positively to a well-organized class taught by a motivated and actuating instructor that has a caring echt involvement in what they learn. Erickson ( 1978 ) further suggests whatever degree of motive your pupils bring to the schoolroom will act upon the degree of larning. As instructors we need to inquire ourselves the inquiry are our pupils motivated to larn, or are they merely encaged in acquisition and what have we done as instructors to lend to this? Cluck and Hess ( 2003 ) explains that in order to assist and actuate scholars we need to assist them develop their ain acquisition schemes. We can make this by learning them to how to utilize their ain acquisition manners, implementing concerted acquisition, promote student to take how they learn, and usage techniques informed by multiple intelligences. When this is done students showed incre ased motive in category work, improved assignment completion, category engagement, and battle in larning. Therefore, Cluck and Hess ( 2003 ) experience these instruction schemes are positive in bettering the pupil ‘s attitudes towards larning. They besides suggest that the usage of extrinsic wagess such as ends, classs, appraisal and touchable wagess would be less productive in developing motive. Constructing relationships has womb-to-tomb permanent effects for the pupils and will actuate them to go involved in their acquisition. If we can construct good relationships with our pupils it will besides assist them to construct good relationships outside of school and when they leave school. There are a figure of things that are really of import when we are seeking to construct relationships with our students, such as naming the students by their first name, attempt and happen out what common involvement you hold and make it your concern before each category to hold a friendly conversation on the subject. Harmonizing to Regan Morrissey ( 2012 ) how the pedagogue creates a positive acquisition atmosphere is of critical importance in constructing relationships and encouraging pupils. Something that contributes to this is the instructors ‘ mode, their verbal and gestural communicating and how they move around the schoolroom. Making a positive schoolroom clime shows how much at tempt you as a instructor feel is worthwhile seting into the lesson. A instructor needs to experience relaxed and confident in their ain ability to bring forth a echt involvement in the lesson. Parents are important to constructing relationships with pupils and one time these relationships are formed we need to be able to keep them and utilize them to our advantage. We should utilize parent/teacher meetings to derive cognition of our pupils ‘ parent and as PE instructors, the parents involvements particularly in the clean universe. This can supply a foundation we can utilize to lure these parents to go involved in extracurricular activities. Kyricau ( 2007 ) explains the importance of the function of parents and carers and the demand for instructors to be able to pass on efficaciously with parents and carers and to recognize and esteem the function that parents and carers can do to the development of students ‘ wellbeing and to raising students ‘ degrees of attainm ent. Keeping relationships with the parents besides has a monolithic knock on consequence to their siblings as it establishes a relationship for those who may be come ining the school in future ( Duck and Pittman, 1994 ) . Communication harmonizing to Tubbs et Al ( 2011 ) ) is loosely defined as the â€Å" sharing of experience ‘ with every bit much as 75 % of our full witting twenty-four hours being spent engaged in communicating. The communicating theoretical account developed by ibid ( 2011 ) suggests communicating is a sensitive country and messages between two people can easy be misunderstood as channels and elements of intervention can direct assorted messages. As communicating is such an of import portion of larning an indispensable ingredient to going a successful and competent instructor is to be an effectual communicator. Communication is closely associated with self-identity and Hattie & A ; Timperley ( 2007 ) believe it is one of the most powerful influences on acquisition and accomplishment. Teachers must be cognizant of their verbal and non-verbal methods of communicating with pupils in order to make an unfastened, productive and honest larning environment. Marzano ( 2007 ) believe s that communicating is the individual most critically of import issue a instructor has to see. A PE instructor demands to be cognizant of how to pass on both verbally and nonverbally in a high quality mode to maximise the acquisition of the pupils. Teachers need to larn how to utilize such things as oculus contact, facial looks, manus gestures and organic structure linguistic communication as tools for communicating in the schoolroom. The usage of oculus contact and facial looks reduces the sum of verbal communicating the instructor has to utilize in a category and is really utile in such a loud environment as the PE category. The usage manus signals can be adopted to relay positive encouragement to pupils who are making something good. An illustration of this is thumbs up or a bang to admit something that a pupil has done good. To pass on with pupils we need to be sensitive to their demand and listen critically to what they have to state, non believing of replies until the pupil has finished the inquiry. A instructor must be able to pass on to their pupils in order to assist them to go independent scholars develop their ability to turn and develop responsibly. I ‘m a house truster that pass oning encouragement, verbally and nonverbally to the pupils is the best signifier of motive. I am witting on my Monday arrangements of making a positive schoolroom clime by pass oning in this mode. I invariably scan the gym, everlastingly interacting, actuating the pupils, invariably praising and promoting but with entire honest and regard. Respect towards the pupils is everything and it is about guaranteed that any pupil instructor who respects their pupils will see the pupils develop a healthy degree of regard towards the instructor. Wragg and Wood ( 1984 ) suggest that surveies have proved how of import positive communicating is in the first few lessons with a new category. It is important to set uping a positive acquisition environment which has already been discussed as a cardinal factor in developing pupil motive. Listening harmonizing to Tubbs et Al ( 2011 ) is a complex procedure affecting hearing, attending, understanding, and retrieving. Gamble and Gamble ( 1994 ) further suggest that going a competent instructor means we must learn our pupils to listen saying that ‘Listening is more than a doctrine, it ‘s critical for our hereafter ‘ . To go an effectual instructor we must develop and expose strong listening accomplishments to portray to our students the importance we place on the procedure. Listening can be something we take for granted, nevertheless listening is an intricate accomplishment and requires developing. We in the instruction profession must promote and supply chances for pupils to pattern listening activities and pass more clip on this of all time of import communicating accomplishment. A motivated instructor enhances the listening accomplishments of their pupils and allows pupils the clip and chance to develop these listening accomplishments. The inquiry ne eds to be addressed why we frequently hear of hapless hearing as a job. The primary grounds are a deficiency of motive and the appropriate hearing accomplishments ( Tubbs et al 2011 ) , who province that of the four communicating accomplishments reading authorship, speech production, and hearing, hearing has received the least attending from pedagogues. To go a constituent, caring instructor I must get first-class listening accomplishments. From the readings and from my life experiences I am able to associate to my ain personal hearing accomplishments particularly on the Monday arrangements. I must pay attending to what the pupils are stating and non to concentrate on holding an reply before listening to the remainder of the inquiry. I must halt replying the inquiries if the pupils do n't cognize the reply, and take clip to listen expose some aerophilic hearing and think of CARE, ( Concentrate Acknowledge, Respect and Empathize ) . We as instructors must maintain inquiring inquiries to our pupils, and when they speak out, give them the regard to supply your 100 % attending. In order to heighten our listening accomplishments we as pupil instructors are in favourable place on our Monday arrangement to pattern concentrating on the message transmitter and forbearing from giving an sentiment excessively rapidly. I must esteem that listen ing is a complex procedure and has to be trained and practiced similar to any accomplishment. I need be patient with the larning procedure to enable me to go through on the accomplishment of the ability to listen to my pupils. Aristotle one time said that ‘we have two ears and but one lingua so that we may listen more than we speak ‘ . This is something that I will ever seek to retrieve in my function as a instructor.